Different between job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment and group working. In your opinion, which one if them is a better way of restructuring work? Substantiate your opinion with illustrations.
a) Job Rotation: This involves rotating people between jobs on the same horizontal plane, either in an agreed or informal basis. It goes some way to achieving some of the desirable job characteristics of increased variety, use of different skills and the opportunity to learn. However, it makes only a limited contribution to improving the motivational content of the jobs.
b) Job Enlargement: This involves combining a number of tasks on the horizontal plane to increase the cycle times and create more complete and hence meaningful jobs. It reduces the degree of specialisation involved and may reduce the degree of pacing in an individuals job. However, as with job rotation, some of the other characteristics of autonomy in decision makirig, interaction and responsibility not fulfilled.
c) Job Enrichment: This introduces changes in the vertical plane by giving operators greater responsibility for decision relating to their work. Thus they may be involved in the planning and organisation of their work, for checking and quality control or for auxiliary tasks such as record keeping, etc. The aim of this change is to enhance the motivational content of the jobs in terms of increased autonomy, decision making, responsibility, recognition, etc. This can be achieved to some extent by change on the horizontal plane, i.e. giving employees total task and control over their pace of work. However, vertical job enrichment does have implications in term of organisation, since it gives employees greater involvement in decisions which traditionally have been the responsibility of management.
d) Group Working: This recognises the significance of groups at work. The advantages of group working are seen as increasing the confidence of workers through recognition of important skills, development of social skills and the opportunity to influence and exercise leadership. The group provides support, encouragement and security and since individuals are interdependent, there is more scope for delegating complete task responsibility to the group.
CURRENT ATTEMPTS AT WORK STRUCTURING
Attempt at work structuring have shifted from the individual jobs as a unit of analysis and design, towards the group and a more holistic approach to work organisation design and development. The earlier technique of job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment are perhaps now recognised as having somewhat more limited application, while the broader approaches involved in group working and socio-technical system design can often provide an umbrella under which the objectives that the earlier techniques sought to achieve are fulfilled.
Examples of work structuring from India and Abroad
Many organisations, in India and abroad, have attempted work restructuring with varying degrees of success. We shall review here a few such attempts.
Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd., (BHEL) Hardwar
BHEL is one of the largest public enterprises in India with six major manufacturing plants and several divisions. The Hardwar unit, employing over 10,000 employees is mainly concerned with manufacture of heavy electrical equipment such as steam and hydraulic turbines, generators and other related equipment. Though, it was, 10 years old, the unit was not coming as expected and production was not satisfying
Survey undertaken in the unit to diagnose the training needs of the middle management level, it was found that in some of the key areas managers were lacking knowledge and there ere information gaps. The situation was not conducive for an effective performance of their supervisory functions. Another study to find out the linkage between the quality of family and community life and the quality of workers life, showed a clear dichotomy between the life of the workers at the workplace and their life around the family.
The above were some of the factors which contributed in undertaking a work design experiment at a favourable work site. Block V, where 25 workmen were engaged in fabrication of the upper part of condenser unit was selected, in view of its compact character, reasonable layout and the positive attitude of the manager and the shop-floor trade union leaders. The reasons for selecting the group were : (1) the condenser was an expensive piece of equipment, (2) for the setting up of the power status it was necessary that a condenser unit should be placed at the site before the steam turbine was installed and as such it should be manufactured and dispatched at least two months ahead of the completed steam turbine and (3) the productivity in the shop was not of a high order.
The workers agreed to undertake the work redesign experiment after a series of talks with internal and external consultants. The total complement of 25 workers in Block V was made up of 9 fitters, 3 fitters, 3 welders, 2 gas-cutters, 1 crane operator, 2 riggers, 2 helpers and 3 workmen involved in materials supplies.
The study of the social system of work imposed by the work organisation indicated that (a) each worker was concerned with his own trade and that none identified himself with the product itself, (b) there was invariably forced idle time because when a particular worker was working at a spot, another worker who was required to do his job in close proximity, had to wait till the first worker had finished his job and (c) there was uneven demand on the services of the materials supplies group, crane operators and riggers. When the study was undertaken in April-May 1975, productivity was certainly very low. Part of the low productivity was on account of high rates of absenteeism during months. The workers, after analyses of data generated from their own experiences, decided on two steps:
1) To set up a task force with representatives of each category of workers and the supervisor. The shop manager would also participate in the meeting if the group so wanted and an industrial engineer was also associated with the group as a resource person. The task group had a membership of 8. Two of the members would be on it permanently because of their leadership abilities and the other members would rotate (except for supervisor).
2) A new work system which would take care of the workers motivation as well as overcoming the persisting culture of low productivity was to be formulated.
Consequently, work system was evolved in which the direct production group would consist of one welder, three fitters and 1 fetters. The functions of the group is to take change of the complete task and gradually take up one another's skills by undergoing on-the-job training. The same is with the crane operator and the riggers. It was decided that the gas cutters and helpers on the one hand and materials supplies group on the other would be integrated into the new work system at a later stage. With more experience and confidence, the workers brought about another redesign of their work organisation in the month of September 1975. Here the workforce was distributed in two shifty in the following manner:
Shift 1 Shift 2
Fitters 5 4
Welders 5 6
Gas-cutter 1 1
Pettier 1 1
In addition, crane operators were there in both the shifts. Each shift group became an integrated group with one group fabricating the right side of the upper part of the condenser unit and the other fabricating the left side. The same process was started in concerned with the manufacture of the lower part of the condenser unit. A similar small-group module was designed with the task force consisting of eight members with the provision of monthly rotation.
The results of these experiments were encouraging. There were steady increases in productivity Further, the old culture of one man-one function was replaced by the acquisition of multiple skills leasing to the development a group system of working with internal monitoring of group norms, internal control work flow and work allocation, identification with the product and its quality and the gradual drop in personal idle time on account of loitering, etc. The old culture that higher status work like that of welder or a fitter would stand in the way of taking up a low status job could be overcome.
The minutes of the meetings of the task force indicate a high degree of orientation towards work-interest issues such as delay in the repair of cranes, etc as against the usual union management type of meetings in which interest related issues assume importance, one could discern a distinct qualitative shift towards problem solving orientation with a view to looking at a problem as a collective one instead of making a scapegoat the other group.
The work reorganisation experiences also led to a new supervisory role in the form of liaison with the input and output developments, service units and involvement with central planning. This became possible as a result of work groups taking substantial control over the production process including routine inspection and maintenance activities to maintaining discipline.
Friday, June 12, 2009
Explain the meaning and classification of OD interventions.
Explain the meaning and classification of OD interventions. Describe how survey feed back as OD intervention technique was successful in an organisation. Briefly describe the organisation you are referring to.
ODINTERVENTION
An OD intervention can therefore be defined as "the set of structured activities in which selected organisational units (target groups or individuals) engage with a task or a sequence of taks where the task or a sequence of taks where the task goals are related directly or indirectly to organisational improvement." The OD strategy can be defined as an overall plan for relating and integrating different organisation improvement activities over a period of time to accomplish objectives.
VARIOUS TECHNIQUES AND MERITS AND DEMERITS OF OD INTERVENTION AND INTERVENTION STRATEGY USED IN ORGANISATION AND MERITS AND DEMERITS OF THIS STRATEGY.
The roots of OD lie in the famous Hawphorne experimets carried out at the Western Electric company by Elton Mayo and his associates. These experiments highlighed the importance of employee attitudes and expectations, informal work groups, norms and values and participation in decision making as influencing performance- all these still central concepts in various techniques of OD.
Though there are divergent opinions and attitudes about the nature and practice of OD, among its practitioners, a gereral consensus may be noticed among them as to what the basic chracteristics of OD are.
In any OD effort the totality of the organisation is to be taken into account. Organisation being an integrated system of sub-systems, changes in anyone sub¬systems tends to have consequences for the other sub-systems. The approach should be holistic either for proving the need for change within or for planning and implementing a change. Until the intended change is absorbed in the total system, optimal collaboration, synergism and efficiency cannot be obtained.
The theoretical body of knowledge underlying the concept and practice of OD is eclectic. Recent developments in the area of behavioural sciences, especially psychology, sociology, anthropology etc., have influenced the OD thought and practice.
The intended changes in OD programmes may be carried out at any of the sub-system levels such as:
* Structure of organisation
* Accomplishment of task
* Work environment (interpersonnel and intergroup relations, work values)
* Methods of decision making and problem solving
* UniqueTechnology
The benefits of the planned effort to the organisation are measuring in terms of improvements noticed in the performance of the sub-system where the change has been implemented, related sub-systems that have an interface with the changed sub-system, and the organisation as a whole.
a) Intended changes in the organisational structure should be initiated on the basis of a study of the existing structure-especially the formal relationships, span of control and functions performed by each individual in the context of the others. The planned change may be on the basis of what an ideal structure should be like. A better approach would be to take into cognizance the felt needs of the role incumbents. The employees may be involved in justifying problems in the existing structure and also in evolving a strategy for change. Such a participative approach would yield results as the employees are tuned to the intended change.
b) Another approach to OD is at the micro level i.e., at the job level, while the above was at the macro level. What is of concern is the designing of jobs for better performance. Job related aspects such as authority, responsibility, activities performed, overlapping roles etc., are considered for changing keeping with the attitudes, expectations of the role incumbents.
Research studies -have shown that job attitudes and job satisfaction influence performance. Jobs may be redesigned to provide variety and opportunities for satisfying higher order needs. Jobs enlargement and job enrichment are the job design methods employed as part of OD techniques.
c) OD practitioners also aim at improving the interpersonal climate. The work climate of openness, trust, and collaboration has positive influence on performance, while the climate of supicion; distrust and hostility result in low or mediocre performance. The climate should be supportive, proactive and allow for opportunities to be creeative and original.
d) Communication is the life of an organisation and effective communication is basic to internal work climate. OD efforts may be dircted to identify the gaps and problems in the formal communication network and improve the communication process. Communications network and improve the communication process. Communication network may be analysed in terms of the following
* Residential analysis: It helps in understanding how a given organisation really functions. The analyst is a 'live in' observer of the communication process.
* Participant analysis: Data is collected about how communication is actually taking place in the network by interviewing the individuals or through a questionnaire.
*Duty Study: Like a cop of observing the traffic on a high way, the analyst positions himself in the communication flow.
* Cross-section analysis: A time sampling of the communication process in the network may be carried out. However, the sampling must be repeated to get sufficient data.
*E C C O (Episodic communication channels in organisation) analysis: A trace element (i.e) a piece of communication is left in the communication network and its flow through the network is traced through time and space.
OD efforts to improve communication may deal with the elements of communication process such as 'source', 'message', and 'channel', 'receiver', process of encoding and network, in addition to communication overload.
e) Decision-making is another important area for OD intervention. What is a decision? Decision is 'action commitment'. Decisions are basic to management process and linking to various activities of the organisation. While some of the decisions are routine and programmed, the other may be unprogrammed and ad hoc. While some of them are operating decisions that are routine, programmed and executed automatically, the others are administrative decisions that are either coordinative and routine, or exceptional and ad hoc whild yield custom-based solutions.
Strategic decisions are also exceptional and have an influence on the overall organisation or a greater segment of the organisation. Necessity for strategic decision may arise due to forces in the external or internal environment, new technological input or at the initiative of the chief executive.
Involvement of the people concerned with.the issue or problem in decision making leads to acceptable answer commitment to implement the decision and better utilisation of human resources. Decisions should be based on objective analysis that include identification of the problem, collection of relevant information and selection of an appropriate solution with a greater probability of achieving the expected outcome.
f) An OD strategy is an intended change at the relevant system or sub-system level. Bring about an intended change. The techniques differ depending upon the sub-systyem that is considered for OD intervention. If the intended change is with reference to the 'people' variable, the methodologies employed are:
* Training or education involving lectures, experiential exercises, simulation, T-group training etc.
* Confrontation, where people are brought together to discuss the problem and evolve a strategy based on mutual trust and understanding of each other's position.
If the intended change is at the technological level, it is in terms of planned effort for bringing in new technology taking into account the likely consequences at the task, structure and people sub-system levels. The necessary environment for accepting and implementing the technological input should be created at the other sub-system levels.
OD interventions at the task level deal with job design parameters such as job enlargement, job enrichment, authourity, and responsibility consideration, human factor engineering etc.
At the structure level, the methodologies indued: data feed back (systematic collection of information that forms the basis for diagnosis, premising, planning etc.) Problem solving and decision making, process consultation (watching and aiding on-going processes and improving them), and OD task force establishment (setting up of teams or groups to carry out Od efforts). These interventions may be carried out by a change agent.
g) Management practices and employee reactions to these practices form the basis for organisation analysis and diagnosis and determining the appropriate intervention. The success of an intervention depends upon the acceptance of it and willingness to implement or maintain the change and its outcomes by the employees within the organisation.
h) Organisation change is not a one shot affair but a complicated and lengthy process. The type of intervention sought for, the size of the organisation, constraints, and facilities within the organisation, perceived organisational climate, attitudes and feelings of the employeees and their commitment tro change -all influence OD efforts. The typical value system of the organisation as a whole, of the management and of Ithe individual, and the values underlying change are quite significant factors influencing the success of OD activity.
ODINTERVENTION
An OD intervention can therefore be defined as "the set of structured activities in which selected organisational units (target groups or individuals) engage with a task or a sequence of taks where the task or a sequence of taks where the task goals are related directly or indirectly to organisational improvement." The OD strategy can be defined as an overall plan for relating and integrating different organisation improvement activities over a period of time to accomplish objectives.
VARIOUS TECHNIQUES AND MERITS AND DEMERITS OF OD INTERVENTION AND INTERVENTION STRATEGY USED IN ORGANISATION AND MERITS AND DEMERITS OF THIS STRATEGY.
The roots of OD lie in the famous Hawphorne experimets carried out at the Western Electric company by Elton Mayo and his associates. These experiments highlighed the importance of employee attitudes and expectations, informal work groups, norms and values and participation in decision making as influencing performance- all these still central concepts in various techniques of OD.
Though there are divergent opinions and attitudes about the nature and practice of OD, among its practitioners, a gereral consensus may be noticed among them as to what the basic chracteristics of OD are.
In any OD effort the totality of the organisation is to be taken into account. Organisation being an integrated system of sub-systems, changes in anyone sub¬systems tends to have consequences for the other sub-systems. The approach should be holistic either for proving the need for change within or for planning and implementing a change. Until the intended change is absorbed in the total system, optimal collaboration, synergism and efficiency cannot be obtained.
The theoretical body of knowledge underlying the concept and practice of OD is eclectic. Recent developments in the area of behavioural sciences, especially psychology, sociology, anthropology etc., have influenced the OD thought and practice.
The intended changes in OD programmes may be carried out at any of the sub-system levels such as:
* Structure of organisation
* Accomplishment of task
* Work environment (interpersonnel and intergroup relations, work values)
* Methods of decision making and problem solving
* UniqueTechnology
The benefits of the planned effort to the organisation are measuring in terms of improvements noticed in the performance of the sub-system where the change has been implemented, related sub-systems that have an interface with the changed sub-system, and the organisation as a whole.
a) Intended changes in the organisational structure should be initiated on the basis of a study of the existing structure-especially the formal relationships, span of control and functions performed by each individual in the context of the others. The planned change may be on the basis of what an ideal structure should be like. A better approach would be to take into cognizance the felt needs of the role incumbents. The employees may be involved in justifying problems in the existing structure and also in evolving a strategy for change. Such a participative approach would yield results as the employees are tuned to the intended change.
b) Another approach to OD is at the micro level i.e., at the job level, while the above was at the macro level. What is of concern is the designing of jobs for better performance. Job related aspects such as authority, responsibility, activities performed, overlapping roles etc., are considered for changing keeping with the attitudes, expectations of the role incumbents.
Research studies -have shown that job attitudes and job satisfaction influence performance. Jobs may be redesigned to provide variety and opportunities for satisfying higher order needs. Jobs enlargement and job enrichment are the job design methods employed as part of OD techniques.
c) OD practitioners also aim at improving the interpersonal climate. The work climate of openness, trust, and collaboration has positive influence on performance, while the climate of supicion; distrust and hostility result in low or mediocre performance. The climate should be supportive, proactive and allow for opportunities to be creeative and original.
d) Communication is the life of an organisation and effective communication is basic to internal work climate. OD efforts may be dircted to identify the gaps and problems in the formal communication network and improve the communication process. Communications network and improve the communication process. Communication network may be analysed in terms of the following
* Residential analysis: It helps in understanding how a given organisation really functions. The analyst is a 'live in' observer of the communication process.
* Participant analysis: Data is collected about how communication is actually taking place in the network by interviewing the individuals or through a questionnaire.
*Duty Study: Like a cop of observing the traffic on a high way, the analyst positions himself in the communication flow.
* Cross-section analysis: A time sampling of the communication process in the network may be carried out. However, the sampling must be repeated to get sufficient data.
*E C C O (Episodic communication channels in organisation) analysis: A trace element (i.e) a piece of communication is left in the communication network and its flow through the network is traced through time and space.
OD efforts to improve communication may deal with the elements of communication process such as 'source', 'message', and 'channel', 'receiver', process of encoding and network, in addition to communication overload.
e) Decision-making is another important area for OD intervention. What is a decision? Decision is 'action commitment'. Decisions are basic to management process and linking to various activities of the organisation. While some of the decisions are routine and programmed, the other may be unprogrammed and ad hoc. While some of them are operating decisions that are routine, programmed and executed automatically, the others are administrative decisions that are either coordinative and routine, or exceptional and ad hoc whild yield custom-based solutions.
Strategic decisions are also exceptional and have an influence on the overall organisation or a greater segment of the organisation. Necessity for strategic decision may arise due to forces in the external or internal environment, new technological input or at the initiative of the chief executive.
Involvement of the people concerned with.the issue or problem in decision making leads to acceptable answer commitment to implement the decision and better utilisation of human resources. Decisions should be based on objective analysis that include identification of the problem, collection of relevant information and selection of an appropriate solution with a greater probability of achieving the expected outcome.
f) An OD strategy is an intended change at the relevant system or sub-system level. Bring about an intended change. The techniques differ depending upon the sub-systyem that is considered for OD intervention. If the intended change is with reference to the 'people' variable, the methodologies employed are:
* Training or education involving lectures, experiential exercises, simulation, T-group training etc.
* Confrontation, where people are brought together to discuss the problem and evolve a strategy based on mutual trust and understanding of each other's position.
If the intended change is at the technological level, it is in terms of planned effort for bringing in new technology taking into account the likely consequences at the task, structure and people sub-system levels. The necessary environment for accepting and implementing the technological input should be created at the other sub-system levels.
OD interventions at the task level deal with job design parameters such as job enlargement, job enrichment, authourity, and responsibility consideration, human factor engineering etc.
At the structure level, the methodologies indued: data feed back (systematic collection of information that forms the basis for diagnosis, premising, planning etc.) Problem solving and decision making, process consultation (watching and aiding on-going processes and improving them), and OD task force establishment (setting up of teams or groups to carry out Od efforts). These interventions may be carried out by a change agent.
g) Management practices and employee reactions to these practices form the basis for organisation analysis and diagnosis and determining the appropriate intervention. The success of an intervention depends upon the acceptance of it and willingness to implement or maintain the change and its outcomes by the employees within the organisation.
h) Organisation change is not a one shot affair but a complicated and lengthy process. The type of intervention sought for, the size of the organisation, constraints, and facilities within the organisation, perceived organisational climate, attitudes and feelings of the employeees and their commitment tro change -all influence OD efforts. The typical value system of the organisation as a whole, of the management and of Ithe individual, and the values underlying change are quite significant factors influencing the success of OD activity.
Discuss the concept of organisational analysis and organisational diagnosis.
Discuss the concept of organisational analysis and organisational diagnosis. Describe the different perspectives of organisational analysis by citing examples. Describe how organisational analysis is conducted in your organisation or an organisation you are familiar with. How far it was successful? Describe the organisation you are referring to.
A systematic attempt to design work was first made in the wake of emergence of machine technology and mass production system immediately after industrial revolution in Western Europe. Since then several experiments in this field have been carried out at different times by different enterprise around the world. In India too, as elsewhere, the need to bring about changes in the way work is organised has arisen from the following socio-economic conditions:
1) Organisations, today, are increasingly getting automated and using new technology to attain the organisational objectives of increased efficiency. This has had a corresponding effect on a greater specialisation, simplification, standardisation and routinisation of a larger number of jobs.
2) Transfer of technology from a developed country to our own along with the associated organisation of work which nay not fit with the prevailing socio-cultural framework of India may have an adverse effect on the social structure and system of values of the people.
3) Organisations have become larger and more bureaucratic in their functioning. This has resulted in increased authoritarianism and inflexibility of management. Decision making is becoming more and more centralised.
4) Even as organisations have continued to increase in size, became mechanistic, and more task-oriented etc. the people working in the organisation are younger, highly skilled, better educated and therefore want to be involved in decision affecting them and their work. They are today less willing to accept routine, monotonous work and look for opportunities to utilise and develop their potentialities. Thus, it
appears that the way most organisation function is in conflict with the needs and expectations of the people working in them. This failure to adequately match the needs of the organisation from an efficiency point of view with the needs of employees on whom the organisation depends are reflected in increased alienation, poor performance, absenteeism, disputes etc.
In view of such problems, it is believed, that ways of structuring jobs and managing organisations that worked earlier may not work now, simply because the people who work in such organisation will no longer put up with them. An important question facing organisations, thus, relates to how they can achieve a fit between persons and their jobs so as to obtain both high work productivity and a high quality organisational experience for the people who work in them. The answer lies in the way work is organised and managed in organisations.
TRADITIONAL APPROACHES TO THE ORGANISATION OF WORK
The traditional approach to the organisation of work has been one of rationalisation involving the specialisation and subdivision of tasks, the minimising and standardising of skills and the development of methods of management prediction and control.
The approach has long history beginning from the writings of Adam Smith who in the "Wealth of Nations" had analysed the division of labour in a pin factory.
"One man draws out the wire, another straightens it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head: to make the head requires two or three distinct operations: to put it on is a peculiar business, to whiten the pins is another; it is even trade by itself to put them into a paper, and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations, which in some manufactories, are all performed by distinct hands, though in others the same man will sometimes perform two or three of them".
Of all the principles of management expounded by the classical theorists, the principle of 'division of labour has the greatest implication for how the work is designed in organisations. The principle specifies that maximum work efficiency
will be achieved if jobs are simplified and specialised to the greatest extent possible. In other words, people in an organisation, be they workers or managers, will function more efficiently if they perform the same specialised functions repeatedly rather than spreading their energies on a number complex tasks.
BURAUCRATIC ORGANISATION THEORY
The importance of the division of labour principle was also argued by Max Weber, in his model of bureaucratic work organisation According to him the bureaucratic model of work organisation was the most efficient form of work organisation in which impersonality and rationality are developed to the highest degree. Bureaucracy, in Weber's analyses, describes a form or design of work organisation which assures predictability of the behaviour of individual in the organisation. To achieve the maximum benefits of the form, Weber believed that certain design strategies must be adopted, specifically:
1) All tasks necessary for the accomplishment of goals are divide into highly specialised jobs. Similar argument in favor of the division of labour principle was put forward, namely, that job holders could become expert in their jobs and could be held responsible for the effective performance of their duties.
2) Each task is performed according to a consistent systems of abstract rules to assure uniformity and coordination if different tasks.
3) Members of the organisation obey the law of the organisation because it is their duty and because those who administer it are superior in technical knowledge. It is also legitimised by the fact that it is delegated from the top of the hierarchy. A chain of command is thereby created.
4) Each official in the organisation conducts business in an impersonal formalistic manner, maintaining a social distance with sub ordinates and clients. This rationality and impersonality can be seen as a protection against arbitrary and abusive rule, a way of making his life in the organisation more predictable and stable and less dependent on the personal whims of an arbitrary leader. In turn, the member is expected to do his duty.
5) Employment is based technical qualifications and promotions on seniority and achievement.
The bureaucratic model of formal organisations is rarely found in pure form. Yet, in some way, all organisations exhibit some degree of one or more of its characteristics. It is a pervasive pattern of organising work in most large organisations including government and educational institutions. The reasons for this lie in the strengths of the system and its appeal to rationality and orderliness. Apart from being logical, it is the most complete system of organising work. Another important strength of bureaucracy is its ability to deal with emergency situations. Studies of floods in India by different scholars have shown how successfully the bureaucratic machinery was set into motion to deal with the problems without loss of time.
Other recent studies have also shown that bureaucracy has marked advantages for emergency administration, though having serious disadvantages for more innovative and developmental tasks. In their study of district administration, Dayal, Mathur and Bhattacharya found that bureaucracy allows grassroot administration to be carried out in a more orderly manner than other systems of management. The rationality and rule-bound approaches (typical of bureaucracy) involve the confidence of the public in its impartiality.
One may, therefore, conclude that all features of bureaucracy are built around the structure of a large-scale administration. Obviously, such organisations rely heavily upon hierarchy, specialisation, rules and impersonality with a view to accomplishing their goals efficiently. However, bureaucracy possesses several dysfunctional traits frequently overlooked by its advocates. For example, hierarchy, which theoretically purports to maintain unity of command, coordination and communication in the organisation, in practice, frequently wastes efforts of people and hampers the growth of their personality. Again, bureaucratic rules as implied in red tapism
(obstructiveness), usually become goals in themselves for human behaviour rather than means for accomplishing organisational objectives. Pai and Reddy in their
study of the Secretariat and heads of Departments, analysed 69 files to determine as to how the actual process of administration operates, how orders are given and how they are executed. The analysis revealed that government administration was highly inefficient. It was noted that the maximum time taken for the disposal of one case was 1,010 days, the average time taken being 211 days. Finally, the impersonality feature of bureaucracy overwhelms the personalities of its followers to such as extent that they eventually become" the slaves of rules, procedures and discipline.
A systematic attempt to design work was first made in the wake of emergence of machine technology and mass production system immediately after industrial revolution in Western Europe. Since then several experiments in this field have been carried out at different times by different enterprise around the world. In India too, as elsewhere, the need to bring about changes in the way work is organised has arisen from the following socio-economic conditions:
1) Organisations, today, are increasingly getting automated and using new technology to attain the organisational objectives of increased efficiency. This has had a corresponding effect on a greater specialisation, simplification, standardisation and routinisation of a larger number of jobs.
2) Transfer of technology from a developed country to our own along with the associated organisation of work which nay not fit with the prevailing socio-cultural framework of India may have an adverse effect on the social structure and system of values of the people.
3) Organisations have become larger and more bureaucratic in their functioning. This has resulted in increased authoritarianism and inflexibility of management. Decision making is becoming more and more centralised.
4) Even as organisations have continued to increase in size, became mechanistic, and more task-oriented etc. the people working in the organisation are younger, highly skilled, better educated and therefore want to be involved in decision affecting them and their work. They are today less willing to accept routine, monotonous work and look for opportunities to utilise and develop their potentialities. Thus, it
appears that the way most organisation function is in conflict with the needs and expectations of the people working in them. This failure to adequately match the needs of the organisation from an efficiency point of view with the needs of employees on whom the organisation depends are reflected in increased alienation, poor performance, absenteeism, disputes etc.
In view of such problems, it is believed, that ways of structuring jobs and managing organisations that worked earlier may not work now, simply because the people who work in such organisation will no longer put up with them. An important question facing organisations, thus, relates to how they can achieve a fit between persons and their jobs so as to obtain both high work productivity and a high quality organisational experience for the people who work in them. The answer lies in the way work is organised and managed in organisations.
TRADITIONAL APPROACHES TO THE ORGANISATION OF WORK
The traditional approach to the organisation of work has been one of rationalisation involving the specialisation and subdivision of tasks, the minimising and standardising of skills and the development of methods of management prediction and control.
The approach has long history beginning from the writings of Adam Smith who in the "Wealth of Nations" had analysed the division of labour in a pin factory.
"One man draws out the wire, another straightens it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head: to make the head requires two or three distinct operations: to put it on is a peculiar business, to whiten the pins is another; it is even trade by itself to put them into a paper, and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations, which in some manufactories, are all performed by distinct hands, though in others the same man will sometimes perform two or three of them".
Of all the principles of management expounded by the classical theorists, the principle of 'division of labour has the greatest implication for how the work is designed in organisations. The principle specifies that maximum work efficiency
will be achieved if jobs are simplified and specialised to the greatest extent possible. In other words, people in an organisation, be they workers or managers, will function more efficiently if they perform the same specialised functions repeatedly rather than spreading their energies on a number complex tasks.
BURAUCRATIC ORGANISATION THEORY
The importance of the division of labour principle was also argued by Max Weber, in his model of bureaucratic work organisation According to him the bureaucratic model of work organisation was the most efficient form of work organisation in which impersonality and rationality are developed to the highest degree. Bureaucracy, in Weber's analyses, describes a form or design of work organisation which assures predictability of the behaviour of individual in the organisation. To achieve the maximum benefits of the form, Weber believed that certain design strategies must be adopted, specifically:
1) All tasks necessary for the accomplishment of goals are divide into highly specialised jobs. Similar argument in favor of the division of labour principle was put forward, namely, that job holders could become expert in their jobs and could be held responsible for the effective performance of their duties.
2) Each task is performed according to a consistent systems of abstract rules to assure uniformity and coordination if different tasks.
3) Members of the organisation obey the law of the organisation because it is their duty and because those who administer it are superior in technical knowledge. It is also legitimised by the fact that it is delegated from the top of the hierarchy. A chain of command is thereby created.
4) Each official in the organisation conducts business in an impersonal formalistic manner, maintaining a social distance with sub ordinates and clients. This rationality and impersonality can be seen as a protection against arbitrary and abusive rule, a way of making his life in the organisation more predictable and stable and less dependent on the personal whims of an arbitrary leader. In turn, the member is expected to do his duty.
5) Employment is based technical qualifications and promotions on seniority and achievement.
The bureaucratic model of formal organisations is rarely found in pure form. Yet, in some way, all organisations exhibit some degree of one or more of its characteristics. It is a pervasive pattern of organising work in most large organisations including government and educational institutions. The reasons for this lie in the strengths of the system and its appeal to rationality and orderliness. Apart from being logical, it is the most complete system of organising work. Another important strength of bureaucracy is its ability to deal with emergency situations. Studies of floods in India by different scholars have shown how successfully the bureaucratic machinery was set into motion to deal with the problems without loss of time.
Other recent studies have also shown that bureaucracy has marked advantages for emergency administration, though having serious disadvantages for more innovative and developmental tasks. In their study of district administration, Dayal, Mathur and Bhattacharya found that bureaucracy allows grassroot administration to be carried out in a more orderly manner than other systems of management. The rationality and rule-bound approaches (typical of bureaucracy) involve the confidence of the public in its impartiality.
One may, therefore, conclude that all features of bureaucracy are built around the structure of a large-scale administration. Obviously, such organisations rely heavily upon hierarchy, specialisation, rules and impersonality with a view to accomplishing their goals efficiently. However, bureaucracy possesses several dysfunctional traits frequently overlooked by its advocates. For example, hierarchy, which theoretically purports to maintain unity of command, coordination and communication in the organisation, in practice, frequently wastes efforts of people and hampers the growth of their personality. Again, bureaucratic rules as implied in red tapism
(obstructiveness), usually become goals in themselves for human behaviour rather than means for accomplishing organisational objectives. Pai and Reddy in their
study of the Secretariat and heads of Departments, analysed 69 files to determine as to how the actual process of administration operates, how orders are given and how they are executed. The analysis revealed that government administration was highly inefficient. It was noted that the maximum time taken for the disposal of one case was 1,010 days, the average time taken being 211 days. Finally, the impersonality feature of bureaucracy overwhelms the personalities of its followers to such as extent that they eventually become" the slaves of rules, procedures and discipline.
Explain the concept of quality of working Life (QWL) in broader societal perspective.
Explain the concept of quality of working Life (QWL) in broader societal perspective. Discuss how does socio-cultural conditions affects the QWL in your organisation or an organisation you are familiar with the suggest some methods to improve the QWL in the organisation. Briefly describe the organisation you are referring to.
QUALITY OF WORKING LIFE:
The Siemens Quality of Working Life movement aims "at integrating the socio-psychological requires of human beings, the original requirements and limitations of a particular technology, the process and the structure of organisation and the existing socio-culture milieu. The purpose of this movement is to make a culture of work commitment in organisation and society at large so as to ensure higher productivity satisfaction of greater job and in social life community active involvement. We have some suggestion for its betterments are:
Training
We offer extensive programs to ensure you're equipped with the latest developments and information in your area of expertise. We also provide for licensing and accreditation. Many of these initiatives have been expanded into web-based programs so that employees in different locations can receive the benefits of live instruction and classroom-like online discussions.
Development Resource Center
Available online to all employees and in-person at key sites, the Center offers more than 2,500 CD-ROM courses, video and audiocassette programs, and hundreds of books and periodicals on leadership, general management and personal development.
Assessment
New technology is also enhancing our performance assessment procedures. Using feedback from colleagues at every level, employees can identify specific areas where development is needed and then create a plan that will help achieve their career goals.
Educational Assistance Program
In addition to in-house programs, we also encourage all employees to reach their full potential through formal education. If business needs warrant, employees have the opportunity to pursue coursework and degrees with 100% tuition reimbursement.
The movement of quality working life traditionally has been closely proved with the job redesign effort based on socio-technical systems approach. However, during the 80s the anxious or Quality of Working Life has been broadened to include a number of approaches aimed at joint decision-making, collaboration and mutual respect between management and employees, increased autonomy at work place, and self-management. Thus
the Quality circles adopted by Japanese and Indian industries as well as democratization of work process through self regulating autonomous groups in the Scandinavian countries and the U.S.A. are all considered part of the Quality of Working Life movement. The following table outlines the elements of quality of working life efforts.
IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT FEATURE OF WORKING LIFE
In the context of India and other developing countries the movements of various aspects of quality working life that benefit consideration.
1. In a state of dynamic equilibrium the quality of working life of people depends on the extent to which men-work-environment relationship forms integral whole and where the level of interaction either the three is very high resulting. By adaptive action orientation it is only in a state of dynamic equilibrium and an awareness of it that the status quo orientation of people in organisations can be exchanged.
2. Those country which is developing the design of work systems therefore, will have to be such as to take into account the mutually of relationship between work organisation and the socio-cultural realities. There will, inevitably, be the need to initiative action research in variety of settings and on a big scale, which alone can provide insight into the nature and dynamics of inter linkages between the work system and the socio-cultural system.
3. Work redesign can become a powerful instrument of cultural and attitudinal change in developing countries. Definite values, attitudes and cultural attributes acquired in the new work system can manifest themselves in the socio-cultural and political system as well. Thus, while in the case of India, the bureaucratic form of work organisation reinforce the authoritarianism of traditional society, the redesigned work system based on participative principles will tend to foster democratic values in the society at big.
4. To fix idea (inculcate) new values it will be necessary and attitudes in the work place, it will also be equality desirable to design such systems that will sustain and strengthen the pre most important patterns of behaviour that already exist in a given culture. Thus, in case of India, proposed alternative form of work organisation with semi-autonomous groups as unit is more geared towards incorporating the main orientations of people as also some of the features of socio-cultural conditions to obtain today.
5. When confined to the organized sectors of industry and government the quality of working life movement, which constitute or emphasis but very minimum percentage of the whole working population, will not be able to contribute towards its ultimate goal of enlarging the quality of life of people in general. To broaden the framework it will be essential, therefore to surround the big majority of men and women who among work in unorganised sectors or as agricultural labour in rural areas and to whom even some of the basic rights have been denied. Maccoby's (1975) enunciation (pronounce clearly) of four principles: security, equity, democracy and individuation in the context of democratisation of work process are highly appropriate here. In unorganised sector most people working as agricultural labour, principles of security and equity are not applicable as in the organised sectors. Obviously then ensuring fulfillment of these basic need a pre-condition for improvement in the quality of working life in the rural areas. Labour of rural organisation, which can ensure security and equity for its members are the first step towards moving in the direction of improvement in the quality of working life. In form of suitable technology it is here that exercise or choice becomes inevitable.
In India as we gather experiences in system of redesigning work, The assessment of social technical development countries we shall be able to develop models and for planning for the future. The philosophy of work redesign does have long term lightly consequence for the gradual development of social policies of a nation. In the coming year our biggest challenge will be to design such system as will be able to resolve for the individual and for the society 'cultural contradictions' which Daniel Bell has defined as the 'double' bind of modernity' that is, effect on personality of receiving simultaneous, contradictory injunctions, if contradictory injunctions pervade through the fabric of the whole society, the result might be what Bell calls social schizophrenia.
The quality of working life movement gives a value framework and a philosophy that has a long-term conclusion for the gradual development of social policies to relate the technological choice and development of human resources such as India.
QUALITY OF WORKING LIFE:
The Siemens Quality of Working Life movement aims "at integrating the socio-psychological requires of human beings, the original requirements and limitations of a particular technology, the process and the structure of organisation and the existing socio-culture milieu. The purpose of this movement is to make a culture of work commitment in organisation and society at large so as to ensure higher productivity satisfaction of greater job and in social life community active involvement. We have some suggestion for its betterments are:
Training
We offer extensive programs to ensure you're equipped with the latest developments and information in your area of expertise. We also provide for licensing and accreditation. Many of these initiatives have been expanded into web-based programs so that employees in different locations can receive the benefits of live instruction and classroom-like online discussions.
Development Resource Center
Available online to all employees and in-person at key sites, the Center offers more than 2,500 CD-ROM courses, video and audiocassette programs, and hundreds of books and periodicals on leadership, general management and personal development.
Assessment
New technology is also enhancing our performance assessment procedures. Using feedback from colleagues at every level, employees can identify specific areas where development is needed and then create a plan that will help achieve their career goals.
Educational Assistance Program
In addition to in-house programs, we also encourage all employees to reach their full potential through formal education. If business needs warrant, employees have the opportunity to pursue coursework and degrees with 100% tuition reimbursement.
The movement of quality working life traditionally has been closely proved with the job redesign effort based on socio-technical systems approach. However, during the 80s the anxious or Quality of Working Life has been broadened to include a number of approaches aimed at joint decision-making, collaboration and mutual respect between management and employees, increased autonomy at work place, and self-management. Thus
the Quality circles adopted by Japanese and Indian industries as well as democratization of work process through self regulating autonomous groups in the Scandinavian countries and the U.S.A. are all considered part of the Quality of Working Life movement. The following table outlines the elements of quality of working life efforts.
IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT FEATURE OF WORKING LIFE
In the context of India and other developing countries the movements of various aspects of quality working life that benefit consideration.
1. In a state of dynamic equilibrium the quality of working life of people depends on the extent to which men-work-environment relationship forms integral whole and where the level of interaction either the three is very high resulting. By adaptive action orientation it is only in a state of dynamic equilibrium and an awareness of it that the status quo orientation of people in organisations can be exchanged.
2. Those country which is developing the design of work systems therefore, will have to be such as to take into account the mutually of relationship between work organisation and the socio-cultural realities. There will, inevitably, be the need to initiative action research in variety of settings and on a big scale, which alone can provide insight into the nature and dynamics of inter linkages between the work system and the socio-cultural system.
3. Work redesign can become a powerful instrument of cultural and attitudinal change in developing countries. Definite values, attitudes and cultural attributes acquired in the new work system can manifest themselves in the socio-cultural and political system as well. Thus, while in the case of India, the bureaucratic form of work organisation reinforce the authoritarianism of traditional society, the redesigned work system based on participative principles will tend to foster democratic values in the society at big.
4. To fix idea (inculcate) new values it will be necessary and attitudes in the work place, it will also be equality desirable to design such systems that will sustain and strengthen the pre most important patterns of behaviour that already exist in a given culture. Thus, in case of India, proposed alternative form of work organisation with semi-autonomous groups as unit is more geared towards incorporating the main orientations of people as also some of the features of socio-cultural conditions to obtain today.
5. When confined to the organized sectors of industry and government the quality of working life movement, which constitute or emphasis but very minimum percentage of the whole working population, will not be able to contribute towards its ultimate goal of enlarging the quality of life of people in general. To broaden the framework it will be essential, therefore to surround the big majority of men and women who among work in unorganised sectors or as agricultural labour in rural areas and to whom even some of the basic rights have been denied. Maccoby's (1975) enunciation (pronounce clearly) of four principles: security, equity, democracy and individuation in the context of democratisation of work process are highly appropriate here. In unorganised sector most people working as agricultural labour, principles of security and equity are not applicable as in the organised sectors. Obviously then ensuring fulfillment of these basic need a pre-condition for improvement in the quality of working life in the rural areas. Labour of rural organisation, which can ensure security and equity for its members are the first step towards moving in the direction of improvement in the quality of working life. In form of suitable technology it is here that exercise or choice becomes inevitable.
In India as we gather experiences in system of redesigning work, The assessment of social technical development countries we shall be able to develop models and for planning for the future. The philosophy of work redesign does have long term lightly consequence for the gradual development of social policies of a nation. In the coming year our biggest challenge will be to design such system as will be able to resolve for the individual and for the society 'cultural contradictions' which Daniel Bell has defined as the 'double' bind of modernity' that is, effect on personality of receiving simultaneous, contradictory injunctions, if contradictory injunctions pervade through the fabric of the whole society, the result might be what Bell calls social schizophrenia.
The quality of working life movement gives a value framework and a philosophy that has a long-term conclusion for the gradual development of social policies to relate the technological choice and development of human resources such as India.
Discuss the factors fostering and impeding organisational change.
Discuss the factors fostering and impeding organisational change. Identify the specific factors fostering and hindering change in your organisation or an organisation you are familiar with and suggest some methods to cope. Briefly describe the organisation you are referring to.
Bureaucratic procedures involve much paper work and routing through proper channel causing inordinate delays and frustration. The procedures are nevertheless valued, perpetuated and multiplied for their own sake as also to pass the buck to others in the chain of hierarchy as far as responsibility for failures go. The negative aspects of bureaucracy's can however be overcome if the individual need and organizational goals are properly reckoned. Whatever the progress in the thinking about and in the actual working of modern organisations, bureaucracy has remained an integral and concomitants feature. There is no use wishing it away. There is every need to understand it better and cope with the need for order and orderly procedures, and point to hierarchy, specialisation, structure, order and certainty among others as essential features of organisations.
Among the several proponents of the Administrative theory, the earliest and significant contribution came from Henri F Fayol, a French industrialist, in 1916. The 14 principles that capture the essence of the administrative theory could be summarised as follows:
Division of work: A division of work or specialization gives higher productivity because one can work at activities in which one is comparatively highly skilled.
Authority and responsibility. Authority is the right to give orders. An organisational member has responsibility to accomplish the organisational objectives of his position. Appropriate sanctions are required to encourage good and to discourage poor performance.
Discipline. There must be respect for and obedience to the rules and objectives of the organisation.
Unity of command. To reduce confusion and conflicts each member should receive orders from and be responsible to only one superior.
Unity of direction. An organisation is effective when members work together toward the same objectives.
Subordination of individual interest to general interest. The interests of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over that of the organisation.
Remuneration of personnel. Pay should be fair and should reward good performance.
Centralisation. A good balance should be found between centralisation and decentralisation.
Scalar chain. There is scalar chain or hierarchy dictated by the principle of unify of command linking all members of the organisation from the top to the bottom.
Order. There is a place for everything and everyone which ought to be so occupied. Equity. Justice, largely based on predetermined conventions, should prevail in the organisation .
Stability of tenure of personnel. Time is required for an employee to get used to new work and succeed in doing it well.
Initiative. The freedom to think out and execute plans at all levels.
Espirit de corps. "Union is strength " Fayol further explained- about the importance of planning, organising, coordinating, and control in organisation. These aspects have been further developed by subsequent writers like Earnet Dale, Herbert G Hicks, Chester I Bernard, Lyndall F Urwick and many others. It is however not proposed to review the contribution of each of these writers here.
The principles of management enunciated under the administrative theory stream of thought have the potential to comprehend and cope with the growing complexity in ortanisations to an extent in the sense that they seek to bring order,
provide structures relationships in channeling activities and processes and usher an element of certainty in actions though, of course, a maze of rules, regulations, policies, practices, etc. But the real problem is whether and to what extent they really serve as definite principles. For example, concepts such as centralisation, decentralisation and delegation suffer from superficiality and over-simplification. Several of the principles occur in pairs and there is little in theory to indicate which is the proper one to apply. Another basic problem here is that it views ortanisations as power—centered and do riot provide for underpinning the elements of a democratic form of Organisation.
Scientific Management
The third stream of classic school of thought is the scientific management. The ' principles scientific management were first developed around 1900. Among the pioneering proponents of the principles of scientific management, particular mention should be made of Frederick Winston Taylor, an engineer by profession. Whereas bureaucracy and administrative theory focused on macro aspects of the structure and processes of human ortanisations, scientific management concerned itself with micro aspects such as physical activities of work through time-and-motion study and examination of men-machine relationships. Unlike ,in the other two, the scientific management laid emphasis on activities at shop floor or work unit level than management and based its inductive reasoning on detailed study and empirical evidence. In juxtaposition the principles of bureaucracy and administrative theory were formed by synthesising experience and observation with abstract reasoning.
Taylor's principles of scientific management could be considered as an improvement over the contributions in the other two streams of thought in as much as he tried to use the engineer's discipline to reduce personal factors, randomness and rule of thumb decision-making. Though Taylor too had his share of critics and criticism, his contribution'to modem management and use of scientific methodology for decision-making and management practices are profound.
For Taylor, scientific management fundamentally consists of certain broad principles, a certain philosophy, which can be.applied in many ways, and a description of what anyone man or men may believe to be the best mechanism for applying these general principles should in no way be confused with the principles themselves.
Taylor described the following four principles of scientific management:
1. Develop a science for each element of a man's work, which replaces the old rule-of-thumb method.
1. Scientifically select and then train, teach; and develop the workman, whereas in the past he chose his own work and trained himself as best he could.
1. Management should heartily cooperate with the workers so as to ensure all the work being done in accordance with the principles of the science which has been developed.
1. There is an almost equal division of the work and the responsibility between the management and the workmen. The management should take over all work for which they are better fitted than the workmen, while in the past all of the work and the greater part of the responsibility were thrown on the workers.
The principal techniques he advocated were motion and time study, specialisation, standardisation planning, slide rules and other work-saving implements, work standards and guidelines, piece rates, wage systems, routing systems and modern cost systems. Most of the developments in the field of industrial engineering and personnel management can be traced to his work.
Taylor did not emphasise much on relations between worker and worker; worker and management. He recognised the need for a 'mental revolution'. But most people paid attention to his suggestions concerning '"efficiency experts", '"motion and time study" and speeding-up techniques to improve output and productivity. When the basic philosophy of scientific management and mental revolution did not gain the same emphasis, the scientific management movement hag began to be criticised as management gimmicks to get most out of workers. Nevertheless many of Taylor's contributions provide the essence of modern management practice. ~everal persons like Henry L Gantt, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth and Harrington Emerson made important contributions to the scientific management movement and expanded scope of the basic ideas propounded by Taylor .
Bureaucratic procedures involve much paper work and routing through proper channel causing inordinate delays and frustration. The procedures are nevertheless valued, perpetuated and multiplied for their own sake as also to pass the buck to others in the chain of hierarchy as far as responsibility for failures go. The negative aspects of bureaucracy's can however be overcome if the individual need and organizational goals are properly reckoned. Whatever the progress in the thinking about and in the actual working of modern organisations, bureaucracy has remained an integral and concomitants feature. There is no use wishing it away. There is every need to understand it better and cope with the need for order and orderly procedures, and point to hierarchy, specialisation, structure, order and certainty among others as essential features of organisations.
Among the several proponents of the Administrative theory, the earliest and significant contribution came from Henri F Fayol, a French industrialist, in 1916. The 14 principles that capture the essence of the administrative theory could be summarised as follows:
Division of work: A division of work or specialization gives higher productivity because one can work at activities in which one is comparatively highly skilled.
Authority and responsibility. Authority is the right to give orders. An organisational member has responsibility to accomplish the organisational objectives of his position. Appropriate sanctions are required to encourage good and to discourage poor performance.
Discipline. There must be respect for and obedience to the rules and objectives of the organisation.
Unity of command. To reduce confusion and conflicts each member should receive orders from and be responsible to only one superior.
Unity of direction. An organisation is effective when members work together toward the same objectives.
Subordination of individual interest to general interest. The interests of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over that of the organisation.
Remuneration of personnel. Pay should be fair and should reward good performance.
Centralisation. A good balance should be found between centralisation and decentralisation.
Scalar chain. There is scalar chain or hierarchy dictated by the principle of unify of command linking all members of the organisation from the top to the bottom.
Order. There is a place for everything and everyone which ought to be so occupied. Equity. Justice, largely based on predetermined conventions, should prevail in the organisation .
Stability of tenure of personnel. Time is required for an employee to get used to new work and succeed in doing it well.
Initiative. The freedom to think out and execute plans at all levels.
Espirit de corps. "Union is strength " Fayol further explained- about the importance of planning, organising, coordinating, and control in organisation. These aspects have been further developed by subsequent writers like Earnet Dale, Herbert G Hicks, Chester I Bernard, Lyndall F Urwick and many others. It is however not proposed to review the contribution of each of these writers here.
The principles of management enunciated under the administrative theory stream of thought have the potential to comprehend and cope with the growing complexity in ortanisations to an extent in the sense that they seek to bring order,
provide structures relationships in channeling activities and processes and usher an element of certainty in actions though, of course, a maze of rules, regulations, policies, practices, etc. But the real problem is whether and to what extent they really serve as definite principles. For example, concepts such as centralisation, decentralisation and delegation suffer from superficiality and over-simplification. Several of the principles occur in pairs and there is little in theory to indicate which is the proper one to apply. Another basic problem here is that it views ortanisations as power—centered and do riot provide for underpinning the elements of a democratic form of Organisation.
Scientific Management
The third stream of classic school of thought is the scientific management. The ' principles scientific management were first developed around 1900. Among the pioneering proponents of the principles of scientific management, particular mention should be made of Frederick Winston Taylor, an engineer by profession. Whereas bureaucracy and administrative theory focused on macro aspects of the structure and processes of human ortanisations, scientific management concerned itself with micro aspects such as physical activities of work through time-and-motion study and examination of men-machine relationships. Unlike ,in the other two, the scientific management laid emphasis on activities at shop floor or work unit level than management and based its inductive reasoning on detailed study and empirical evidence. In juxtaposition the principles of bureaucracy and administrative theory were formed by synthesising experience and observation with abstract reasoning.
Taylor's principles of scientific management could be considered as an improvement over the contributions in the other two streams of thought in as much as he tried to use the engineer's discipline to reduce personal factors, randomness and rule of thumb decision-making. Though Taylor too had his share of critics and criticism, his contribution'to modem management and use of scientific methodology for decision-making and management practices are profound.
For Taylor, scientific management fundamentally consists of certain broad principles, a certain philosophy, which can be.applied in many ways, and a description of what anyone man or men may believe to be the best mechanism for applying these general principles should in no way be confused with the principles themselves.
Taylor described the following four principles of scientific management:
1. Develop a science for each element of a man's work, which replaces the old rule-of-thumb method.
1. Scientifically select and then train, teach; and develop the workman, whereas in the past he chose his own work and trained himself as best he could.
1. Management should heartily cooperate with the workers so as to ensure all the work being done in accordance with the principles of the science which has been developed.
1. There is an almost equal division of the work and the responsibility between the management and the workmen. The management should take over all work for which they are better fitted than the workmen, while in the past all of the work and the greater part of the responsibility were thrown on the workers.
The principal techniques he advocated were motion and time study, specialisation, standardisation planning, slide rules and other work-saving implements, work standards and guidelines, piece rates, wage systems, routing systems and modern cost systems. Most of the developments in the field of industrial engineering and personnel management can be traced to his work.
Taylor did not emphasise much on relations between worker and worker; worker and management. He recognised the need for a 'mental revolution'. But most people paid attention to his suggestions concerning '"efficiency experts", '"motion and time study" and speeding-up techniques to improve output and productivity. When the basic philosophy of scientific management and mental revolution did not gain the same emphasis, the scientific management movement hag began to be criticised as management gimmicks to get most out of workers. Nevertheless many of Taylor's contributions provide the essence of modern management practice. ~everal persons like Henry L Gantt, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth and Harrington Emerson made important contributions to the scientific management movement and expanded scope of the basic ideas propounded by Taylor .
Describe different types of organisational structure and examine the relative merits and demerits of different structures.
Describe different types of organisational structure and examine the relative merits and demerits of different structures. Discuss and review the structure of your organisation or an organisation you are familiar with.
THE TYPOLOGY OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURES IS AS FOLLOWS: Formal Informal Organisation
Various organisations normally develop al least some formal procedures for regulating relation's between members, among members and their organisations. Status is bestowed on persons. Norms are laid down, usually they are imposed from above. Relationships are prescribed and communications flow vertically or horizontally among members.
Informal relations, to begin with, are unstructured and not given. Relationships are not prescribed, but sought by members in a group. Unofficial norms evolve in informal organisation out of consensus in a group. Interaction between or among members in an informal organisation is voluntary.
In any organisation, informal organisation coexists with the formal organisation. Informal organisation has both functional and dysfunctional aspects while in formal organisation the functional aspects have received much attention; in informal organisation, dysfunctional
aspects such as conflict objectives, interruption of output, inertia and resistance to change have received wide attention. With the result, there is often a misconception about the counter-productive role of informal organisations.
In realistically, informal organisation can reinforce and facilitate the functional aspects of formal organisation in the following ways:
1. It is a very handy channel for communication in the organisation, if properly used. It can become an effective supplement to the formal system of communication.
2. It blends with the formal system and facilitates easier, speedier and effective flow of work.
3. It provides satisfaction and stability to work groups.
4. It reduces the adverse impacts of the rigidity of formal organisation.
Centralization And Decentralization
Centralization refers to consolidation decision-making in one coordination head. Decentralisation refers to delegation of decision making to subordinate units. Both centralisation and decentralisation are intended to improve organisational effectiveness. Theories are of little avail in suggesting which is the proper thing to do in a given situation. At one point Hyundai Motor Company suffered because of centralisation and Simple Motors because of decentralisation.
If one were discerning enough, it is possible to identify two basic types of centralisation and decentralisations.
a) Geographic/territorial concentration (centralisation) or dispersal (decentralisation or operation. If all operations are under one roof or I one geographic region, Geographic regions could refer to a city (eg. Banglore), State (Karnatka), country (India) or continent (Asia).
b) Functional concentration or decentralisation. As an example, personnel functions in an organisation could be concentrated in one separate department or handled in various functional departments.
Therefore, from a practical point of view, merely by looking at charts it is difficult to determine to what extent authority is concentrated or dispersed. There is need therefore to analytically understand how the chain of command operates into organisation. In realistically centralized form will have little amount of decentralization and vice versa. The difference is one of degree. " Centralized decentralization" seems to be the dominating mode in organisation design and structure.
The responsibility attaching to the chief executive of particular operation shall in no way be limited. Each such organisation headed by its chief executive shall be
complete in every necessary function and enabled to exercise its full initiative and logical development (Decentralisation of operations)
2. Many central organisation functions are absolutely essential to the logical development and proper coordination of the Corporation's activities: Centralised staff services to advise the line on specialized phases of the work, and central measurement of results of check the exercise of delegated responsibility.
Vertical And Horiozontal Structures:
The classical bureaucratic model of organisation though pervasive, has been considered inappropriate to the changing requirements of modern times. A bureaucratic organisation was considered to be too inflexible and hierarchical to adapt to the changes occurring in organisations and technology. A tall organisation structure means a series of narrow spans of control, and a flat one incorporates wide spans of control, and a flat one incorporates wide spans and limited layers of control at horizontal levels. Both the structures have their advantages and disadvantages. They should be viewed on relevant concepts and not as ideal absolutes. A tall structure calls for control and close supervision over the subordinates. But close supervision may not necessarily produce better control. Similarly in a flat organisation with wide spans, it may not be possible to keep close control over subordinates but it provides for decentralisation, individual initiative and self-control. Tall structures are less favorably viewed in modern organisation analysis. From a behavioral point of view it is held that self-control is better than imposed control. The choice in this regard however rests ultimately on management assumptions about individuals and groups in organisations.
complete in every necessary function and enabled to exercise its full initiative and logical development (Decentralisation of operations)
2. Many central organisation functions are absolutely essential to the logical development and proper coordination of the Corporation's activities: Centralised staff services to advise the line on specialized phases of the work, and central measurement of results of check the exercise of delegated responsibility.
Vertical And Horiozontal Structures:
The classical bureaucratic model of organisation though pervasive, has been considered inappropriate to the changing requirements of modern times. A bureaucratic organisation was considered to be too inflexible and hierarchical to adapt to the changes occurring in organisations and technology. A tall organisation structure means a series of narrow spans of control, and a flat one incorporates wide spans of control, and a flat one incorporates wide spans and limited layers of control at horizontal levels. Both the structures have their advantages and disadvantages. They should be viewed on relevant concepts and not as ideal absolutes. A tall structure calls for control and close supervision over the subordinates. But close supervision may not necessarily produce better control. Similarly in a flat organisation with wide spans, it may not be possible to keep close control over subordinates but it provides for decentralisation, individual initiative and self-control. Tall structures are less favorably viewed in modern organisation analysis. From a behavioral point of view it is held that self-control is better than imposed control. The choice in this regard however rests ultimately on management assumptions about individuals and groups in organisations.
c) Those people who have the alternate right for the execution with prescribed qualification and methodological provision for the fulfillment of the duties.
2) Hierarchy: The paramedical structures of Hierarchical authority is common to all bureaucracies. Each and every position in the hierarchy covering an area over which has totally jurisdiction in terms of division of work, authority, and responsibility. The starting at the top power and authority are delegated downward from each supervisor to his subordinates. The system firmly orders supervision of the lower offices by the higher ones, with provision for appeal of decisions of a lower office to its higher authority according the procedure of laid down.
3) Paper Work: The process is recorded in a wide array of written documents and preserved in their original and draft form.
4) Expert training and academic qualification: Recruitment is based on qualification and ability. Knowledge are learnt through experience and training. Increment or promotion is based on seniority and merits. Job security is conformity with rules ensures. Knowledge of rules requires a special technical training which the official process.
5) Functional aspects: Subject to this limitation the following can be considered as the functional aspects of an 'Ideal' bureaucracy:
A) Specialisation: At the different levels in the organisational bureaucracy be it in industries or services comparing with an assembly line which each member his special functions in a adequate manner. Routine work is assigning with fixed responsibilities providing for an element specialisation.
B) Structure: Through structuring the duties and responsibilities and reporting in a differentiate hierarchy that organisation is provided a form or structure. Structure sets the pace and framework for organisational processes.
C) Rationality: The criteria for decision making in routine situation is prescribed ahead of events emphasising consistency in dealing with Organisational questions a measure of objectivity is totally sired in the organisation.
D) Democracy: Organisation makes by bureaucracy more democratic by emphasising more on qualification and technical for competence for purposes of recruitment and highlighting the jurisdictional roles of people at all levels in a hierarchy. The level in the hierarchy the processes are guided by laid down rules, regulation policy practices, or other privileged treatment.
Demerits of the bureaucracy of the organisation:
The more prominent among the dysfunctional aspects include the following:
A) Rigidity: Steps of bureaucracy argue that rules are often rigid and inflexible, encouraging status and breeding resistance to change. Compliance with rules may provide the cover to avoiding the responsibility for failures.
B) No personality: Bureaucracy encouraging mechanical way of doing things.giving primacy to organisational rules and regulations than individual needs and emotions.The office a person holds is important than the person per se.
C) Displacement of objectives: Rules purely devise to get organisational goals at each level became an end in themselves independent of organisational goals. Samsung calls such bureaucratic behaviour as a process of "inversion of ends and means".When objectives gets so displaced it is often difficult for managers at higher level or even for the other constituents of the organisations such as consumers and stock holders to seek redress.
Empire building: As Max Weber observed, once it is fully established, it is to broken bureaucracy even if it has outlived its utility. A common tendency is to relate power and prestige with the number of subordinate's person has. Therefore the effort, more often than not, is to increase the number of people employed under one's control.
THE TYPOLOGY OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURES IS AS FOLLOWS: Formal Informal Organisation
Various organisations normally develop al least some formal procedures for regulating relation's between members, among members and their organisations. Status is bestowed on persons. Norms are laid down, usually they are imposed from above. Relationships are prescribed and communications flow vertically or horizontally among members.
Informal relations, to begin with, are unstructured and not given. Relationships are not prescribed, but sought by members in a group. Unofficial norms evolve in informal organisation out of consensus in a group. Interaction between or among members in an informal organisation is voluntary.
In any organisation, informal organisation coexists with the formal organisation. Informal organisation has both functional and dysfunctional aspects while in formal organisation the functional aspects have received much attention; in informal organisation, dysfunctional
aspects such as conflict objectives, interruption of output, inertia and resistance to change have received wide attention. With the result, there is often a misconception about the counter-productive role of informal organisations.
In realistically, informal organisation can reinforce and facilitate the functional aspects of formal organisation in the following ways:
1. It is a very handy channel for communication in the organisation, if properly used. It can become an effective supplement to the formal system of communication.
2. It blends with the formal system and facilitates easier, speedier and effective flow of work.
3. It provides satisfaction and stability to work groups.
4. It reduces the adverse impacts of the rigidity of formal organisation.
Centralization And Decentralization
Centralization refers to consolidation decision-making in one coordination head. Decentralisation refers to delegation of decision making to subordinate units. Both centralisation and decentralisation are intended to improve organisational effectiveness. Theories are of little avail in suggesting which is the proper thing to do in a given situation. At one point Hyundai Motor Company suffered because of centralisation and Simple Motors because of decentralisation.
If one were discerning enough, it is possible to identify two basic types of centralisation and decentralisations.
a) Geographic/territorial concentration (centralisation) or dispersal (decentralisation or operation. If all operations are under one roof or I one geographic region, Geographic regions could refer to a city (eg. Banglore), State (Karnatka), country (India) or continent (Asia).
b) Functional concentration or decentralisation. As an example, personnel functions in an organisation could be concentrated in one separate department or handled in various functional departments.
Therefore, from a practical point of view, merely by looking at charts it is difficult to determine to what extent authority is concentrated or dispersed. There is need therefore to analytically understand how the chain of command operates into organisation. In realistically centralized form will have little amount of decentralization and vice versa. The difference is one of degree. " Centralized decentralization" seems to be the dominating mode in organisation design and structure.
The responsibility attaching to the chief executive of particular operation shall in no way be limited. Each such organisation headed by its chief executive shall be
complete in every necessary function and enabled to exercise its full initiative and logical development (Decentralisation of operations)
2. Many central organisation functions are absolutely essential to the logical development and proper coordination of the Corporation's activities: Centralised staff services to advise the line on specialized phases of the work, and central measurement of results of check the exercise of delegated responsibility.
Vertical And Horiozontal Structures:
The classical bureaucratic model of organisation though pervasive, has been considered inappropriate to the changing requirements of modern times. A bureaucratic organisation was considered to be too inflexible and hierarchical to adapt to the changes occurring in organisations and technology. A tall organisation structure means a series of narrow spans of control, and a flat one incorporates wide spans of control, and a flat one incorporates wide spans and limited layers of control at horizontal levels. Both the structures have their advantages and disadvantages. They should be viewed on relevant concepts and not as ideal absolutes. A tall structure calls for control and close supervision over the subordinates. But close supervision may not necessarily produce better control. Similarly in a flat organisation with wide spans, it may not be possible to keep close control over subordinates but it provides for decentralisation, individual initiative and self-control. Tall structures are less favorably viewed in modern organisation analysis. From a behavioral point of view it is held that self-control is better than imposed control. The choice in this regard however rests ultimately on management assumptions about individuals and groups in organisations.
complete in every necessary function and enabled to exercise its full initiative and logical development (Decentralisation of operations)
2. Many central organisation functions are absolutely essential to the logical development and proper coordination of the Corporation's activities: Centralised staff services to advise the line on specialized phases of the work, and central measurement of results of check the exercise of delegated responsibility.
Vertical And Horiozontal Structures:
The classical bureaucratic model of organisation though pervasive, has been considered inappropriate to the changing requirements of modern times. A bureaucratic organisation was considered to be too inflexible and hierarchical to adapt to the changes occurring in organisations and technology. A tall organisation structure means a series of narrow spans of control, and a flat one incorporates wide spans of control, and a flat one incorporates wide spans and limited layers of control at horizontal levels. Both the structures have their advantages and disadvantages. They should be viewed on relevant concepts and not as ideal absolutes. A tall structure calls for control and close supervision over the subordinates. But close supervision may not necessarily produce better control. Similarly in a flat organisation with wide spans, it may not be possible to keep close control over subordinates but it provides for decentralisation, individual initiative and self-control. Tall structures are less favorably viewed in modern organisation analysis. From a behavioral point of view it is held that self-control is better than imposed control. The choice in this regard however rests ultimately on management assumptions about individuals and groups in organisations.
c) Those people who have the alternate right for the execution with prescribed qualification and methodological provision for the fulfillment of the duties.
2) Hierarchy: The paramedical structures of Hierarchical authority is common to all bureaucracies. Each and every position in the hierarchy covering an area over which has totally jurisdiction in terms of division of work, authority, and responsibility. The starting at the top power and authority are delegated downward from each supervisor to his subordinates. The system firmly orders supervision of the lower offices by the higher ones, with provision for appeal of decisions of a lower office to its higher authority according the procedure of laid down.
3) Paper Work: The process is recorded in a wide array of written documents and preserved in their original and draft form.
4) Expert training and academic qualification: Recruitment is based on qualification and ability. Knowledge are learnt through experience and training. Increment or promotion is based on seniority and merits. Job security is conformity with rules ensures. Knowledge of rules requires a special technical training which the official process.
5) Functional aspects: Subject to this limitation the following can be considered as the functional aspects of an 'Ideal' bureaucracy:
A) Specialisation: At the different levels in the organisational bureaucracy be it in industries or services comparing with an assembly line which each member his special functions in a adequate manner. Routine work is assigning with fixed responsibilities providing for an element specialisation.
B) Structure: Through structuring the duties and responsibilities and reporting in a differentiate hierarchy that organisation is provided a form or structure. Structure sets the pace and framework for organisational processes.
C) Rationality: The criteria for decision making in routine situation is prescribed ahead of events emphasising consistency in dealing with Organisational questions a measure of objectivity is totally sired in the organisation.
D) Democracy: Organisation makes by bureaucracy more democratic by emphasising more on qualification and technical for competence for purposes of recruitment and highlighting the jurisdictional roles of people at all levels in a hierarchy. The level in the hierarchy the processes are guided by laid down rules, regulation policy practices, or other privileged treatment.
Demerits of the bureaucracy of the organisation:
The more prominent among the dysfunctional aspects include the following:
A) Rigidity: Steps of bureaucracy argue that rules are often rigid and inflexible, encouraging status and breeding resistance to change. Compliance with rules may provide the cover to avoiding the responsibility for failures.
B) No personality: Bureaucracy encouraging mechanical way of doing things.giving primacy to organisational rules and regulations than individual needs and emotions.The office a person holds is important than the person per se.
C) Displacement of objectives: Rules purely devise to get organisational goals at each level became an end in themselves independent of organisational goals. Samsung calls such bureaucratic behaviour as a process of "inversion of ends and means".When objectives gets so displaced it is often difficult for managers at higher level or even for the other constituents of the organisations such as consumers and stock holders to seek redress.
Empire building: As Max Weber observed, once it is fully established, it is to broken bureaucracy even if it has outlived its utility. A common tendency is to relate power and prestige with the number of subordinate's person has. Therefore the effort, more often than not, is to increase the number of people employed under one's control.
Discuss the meaning and methods of OD intervention.
Discuss the meaning and methods of OD intervention. Describe how OD intervention method is being used by your or an organisation you are familiar with citing examples. Briefly describe the organisation you are referring to.
Definition of OD intervention
an od intervention can be defined as “the set of structured activities in which selected organization units engage with a task or a sequence of tasks where the task goals are related directly or indirectly to organizational improvement in an od intervention the entire process of diagnosis, alternative generation and making action choices are jointly conducted and od will also examine the process of such diagnosis, action planning and implementation.
Characteristics of od intervention
First An od intervention will focus on the organizational processes apart from the substantive content of an activity.
Secondly an od intervention would generally focus on a work team as the unit of analysis and change towards effective behaviour
Thirdly od would normally view change as an on-going process and would rely on a collaborative management of work culture.
Method of OD intervention – While a wide range of OD interventions is available to a practitioner and a change agent, presenting them all would only lead to an avoidable confusion. Nor can all interventions be used in any one OD programme. Most authors have therefore developed a typology to comprehend the range and applicability of OD interventions. Analysis of these typologies indicates that they are centred aroud one or more of the following dimensions :
A. Target - What organisational segment is planned to be examined and
changed?
B. Focus - What planned to be changed? Is it the task system or behaviour
etc.?
C. Strategy - How is the change planned to be brought about ?
Od intervention used in BHEL-BLOCK5 PAGE33-34(M)
In order to develop & improve the effectiveness of the human resources in the Organisation, a committee called ‘Human Resources Committee’ was first constituted by BHEL in Bhopal in 1976. The committee is the central body and plays the central role in implementation of all OD efforts. With the help of external and internal resource persons, a number of programmes/workshops have been Organised for the development of the members of this committee improving their problem solving capabilities and decision making. The range of OD interventions are described below.
Job Redesign and Work commitment as an OD intervention
In one of the BHEL units (Hardwar) Job redesign was taken up and as an OD intervention in 1975. This experiment was pursued for around 4 years and very encouraging results were obtained.
i) A more satisfying job, due to increased variety and relief from boredom and monotony
ii) Personal growth for all, by learning additional skills of other trends and acquiring leadership Qualities
iii) Reduction in health/safety hazards
iv) An atmosphere with less tension and jealousy
v) An improved team spirit and morale resulting in improved communication and human relationship
vi) Increased self esteem and pride among the workers.
Workshops were conducted and it was found to be very useful and threw up more questions for wider debate and discussions. By using survey method, a list of programmes or subjects or themes is sent to various. H. O. Ds who respond by ticking the appropriate ones for their executives. As a result of various diagnostic exercises some critical needs of training and development are identified. The workshops on various themes also give valuable idea of the areas requiring more thrust by way of training and development and specific training and development needs are thus identified.
Based on role analysis a draft system with the following objectives has been circulated by the Corporate Personnel for the comments of Personnel/Training (HRD)/Divisional Heads.
. Helping the executives to become more effective in their present and future jobs.
. Enabling the executives to perform at optimum level by determining and meeting their growth needs.
. Helping the executives to visualise their roles more clearly.
. Preventing the obsolescence of their technical and managerial skills.
. Optimising the utilization of training resources by providing appropriate inputs.
. Facilitating the design of need based programmes and identify the training and development needs.
. Preparing data bank of capabilities required for various positions.
. Facilitating job rotation, career and succession planning.
Once implemented, it will provide a valuable data base for planning, training and development activities and identifying appropriate candidates for programmes.
Performance Appraisal and Potenfial Appraisal
In BHEL it has remained so far that the role of superior was limited to evaluator or judge and the role of the appraisee was passive. Now the superiors role is being conceived as helper and counseller and the appraisee is encouraged to become more involved and committed in achieving the objectives.
Performance feedback and Counselling
The need and importance of performance feedback and counseling has been realized. Attempts are being made to cover maximum number of executives in various programme/workshops on performance feedback and counselling to enable them to practice it as an important tool for Human Resource Development. The supervisors also will be covered in such efforts.
Career Planning and Development
Time-cum-merit based promotion was practiced which is able to satisfy the individuals and organizational needs to a great extent. The employees are encouraged and helped to plan a career path. They are liberally sponsored to higher educational programmes in IIMS/IITs.
Definition of OD intervention
an od intervention can be defined as “the set of structured activities in which selected organization units engage with a task or a sequence of tasks where the task goals are related directly or indirectly to organizational improvement in an od intervention the entire process of diagnosis, alternative generation and making action choices are jointly conducted and od will also examine the process of such diagnosis, action planning and implementation.
Characteristics of od intervention
First An od intervention will focus on the organizational processes apart from the substantive content of an activity.
Secondly an od intervention would generally focus on a work team as the unit of analysis and change towards effective behaviour
Thirdly od would normally view change as an on-going process and would rely on a collaborative management of work culture.
Method of OD intervention – While a wide range of OD interventions is available to a practitioner and a change agent, presenting them all would only lead to an avoidable confusion. Nor can all interventions be used in any one OD programme. Most authors have therefore developed a typology to comprehend the range and applicability of OD interventions. Analysis of these typologies indicates that they are centred aroud one or more of the following dimensions :
A. Target - What organisational segment is planned to be examined and
changed?
B. Focus - What planned to be changed? Is it the task system or behaviour
etc.?
C. Strategy - How is the change planned to be brought about ?
Od intervention used in BHEL-BLOCK5 PAGE33-34(M)
In order to develop & improve the effectiveness of the human resources in the Organisation, a committee called ‘Human Resources Committee’ was first constituted by BHEL in Bhopal in 1976. The committee is the central body and plays the central role in implementation of all OD efforts. With the help of external and internal resource persons, a number of programmes/workshops have been Organised for the development of the members of this committee improving their problem solving capabilities and decision making. The range of OD interventions are described below.
Job Redesign and Work commitment as an OD intervention
In one of the BHEL units (Hardwar) Job redesign was taken up and as an OD intervention in 1975. This experiment was pursued for around 4 years and very encouraging results were obtained.
i) A more satisfying job, due to increased variety and relief from boredom and monotony
ii) Personal growth for all, by learning additional skills of other trends and acquiring leadership Qualities
iii) Reduction in health/safety hazards
iv) An atmosphere with less tension and jealousy
v) An improved team spirit and morale resulting in improved communication and human relationship
vi) Increased self esteem and pride among the workers.
Workshops were conducted and it was found to be very useful and threw up more questions for wider debate and discussions. By using survey method, a list of programmes or subjects or themes is sent to various. H. O. Ds who respond by ticking the appropriate ones for their executives. As a result of various diagnostic exercises some critical needs of training and development are identified. The workshops on various themes also give valuable idea of the areas requiring more thrust by way of training and development and specific training and development needs are thus identified.
Based on role analysis a draft system with the following objectives has been circulated by the Corporate Personnel for the comments of Personnel/Training (HRD)/Divisional Heads.
. Helping the executives to become more effective in their present and future jobs.
. Enabling the executives to perform at optimum level by determining and meeting their growth needs.
. Helping the executives to visualise their roles more clearly.
. Preventing the obsolescence of their technical and managerial skills.
. Optimising the utilization of training resources by providing appropriate inputs.
. Facilitating the design of need based programmes and identify the training and development needs.
. Preparing data bank of capabilities required for various positions.
. Facilitating job rotation, career and succession planning.
Once implemented, it will provide a valuable data base for planning, training and development activities and identifying appropriate candidates for programmes.
Performance Appraisal and Potenfial Appraisal
In BHEL it has remained so far that the role of superior was limited to evaluator or judge and the role of the appraisee was passive. Now the superiors role is being conceived as helper and counseller and the appraisee is encouraged to become more involved and committed in achieving the objectives.
Performance feedback and Counselling
The need and importance of performance feedback and counseling has been realized. Attempts are being made to cover maximum number of executives in various programme/workshops on performance feedback and counselling to enable them to practice it as an important tool for Human Resource Development. The supervisors also will be covered in such efforts.
Career Planning and Development
Time-cum-merit based promotion was practiced which is able to satisfy the individuals and organizational needs to a great extent. The employees are encouraged and helped to plan a career path. They are liberally sponsored to higher educational programmes in IIMS/IITs.
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